Works Cited in Novels

Works cited are all the rage...even in novels.

December 5, 2006

Loved His New Novel, and What a Bibliography

By JULIE BOSMAN

At the end of Norman Mailer’s new 467-page novel, “The Castle in the Forest,” after the acknowledgments page on which he thanks his assistants, archivist, editor, publisher, wife, agents and German teacher, Mr. Mailer tacks on another flourish: an alphabetical list of 126 authors and titles that enriched the book.

Never mind asking how “Anna Karenina” and “Paradise Lost” could have influenced “The Castle in the Forest,” a fictionalized account of Hitler’s boyhood to be released next month. What’s a bibliography doing in a novel?

“It’s terribly off-putting,” said James Wood, the literary critic for The New Republic. “It would be very odd if Thomas Hardy had put at the end of all his books, ‘I’m thankful to the Dorset County Chronicle for dialect books from the 18th century.’ We expect authors to do that work, and I don’t see why we should praise them for that work. And I don’t see why they should praise themselves for it.”

Traditionally confined to works of nonfiction, the bibliography has lately been creeping into novels, rankling critics who call it a pretentious extension of the acknowledgments page, which began appearing more than a decade ago and was roundly derided as the tacky literary equivalent of the Oscar speech. Purists contend that novelists have always done research, particularly in books like “Madame Bovary” that were inspired by real-life events, yet never felt a bibliography was necessary.

And many present-day writers like Thomas Pynchon, most recently in “Against the Day,” put extensive historical research into their novels without citing sources or explaining methods.

But some novelists defend the bibliography, pointing out that for writers who spend months or years doing research for historical novels, a list of sources is proof of labor and expertise. And it may protect them from accusations of sloppy sourcing in a climate fueled by lawsuits and plagiarism charges. (In his 2005 novel “Saturday,” Ian McEwan, who was accused last week of misappropriating material in his earlier novel “Atonement” from another author’s autobiography, lavishly thanked a London surgeon he observed for two years while researching his book.)

Some novelists may be rebelling against the trend toward fictionalized memoirs, perpetuated by writers like James Frey, by beefing up their own books with facts, said Samuel Cohen, a professor of English at the University of Missouri. But “this shouldn’t be an issue for novelists,” Mr. Cohen said. “Novels are supposed to be borrowings and stealings.”

In a note at the end of the forthcoming novel “House of Meetings,” Martin Amis lists six books that he read while writing the book. “Prayers for the Assassin,” a recent book by Robert Ferrigno, cites six Web sites that provided background information Mr. Ferrigno used in writing the novel. Charles Frazier writes in an author’s note appended to “Thirteen Moons” that “anyone seeking historical or geographical fact should look elsewhere,” then suggests a list of eight nonfiction titles and authors.

Thomas Mullen, in “The Last Town on Earth,” his debut novel set in the influenza-ridden Pacific Northwest of 1918, thanked authors of books like “The Great Influenza” and “America’s Forgotten Pandemic: The Influenza of 1918.”

Of course some fiction writers have always tacked on bibliographies, as William T. Vollmann has done since his first book, “You Bright and Risen Angels,” published in 1987. Mr. Vollmann initially did it because the book was first published in Britain, and he wasn’t sure how many sources he was expected to cite according to British laws, he said.

But now, Mr. Vollmann says, he does it as a service to readers. “I think it’s nice for a reader to have the information available,” he said. “Let’s say somebody gets interested in a character, or is disbelieving of something I had a character do. He can look in the back of the book.”

Michael Crichton’s new novel, “Next,” contains a seven-page bibliography listing 36 books that Mr. Crichton read while researching the book, along with citations for 12 articles published in newspapers or other publications and 12 Internet sources, including the Web site Snopes.com and a BBC News article on how natural blonds are poised to become extinct.

“My feeling is that if I’ve spent a lot of time in a particular field, after a couple of years I know quite a bit about it,” Mr. Crichton said in a telephone interview. “I try and include the ones that either matter to me, or from a legal standpoint, the ones from which I drew most heavily.”

Readers are often impressed with his bibliography, Mr. Crichton added. “People will often say to me, ‘Oh my goodness, look how many books you’ve read,’ ” he said.

Which makes some observers suspicious that while a bibliography can appear driven by scrupulousness and politeness, vanity is the real culprit.

“It’s a trend that is running out of control,” said Sebastian Faulks, the author of “Birdsong” and “Charlotte Gray,” in a telephone interview from London. “Lots of writers use them as a way of showing off, saying, ‘Look how hard I’ve worked, look how clever I am, look at all these books I’ve read.’ It’s a plea to be taken seriously.”

Yet in the hardcover edition of his latest novel, “Human Traces,” Mr. Faulks included a bibliography. “I do not think that novels should contain bibliographies,” Mr. Faulks wrote in it, “because making lists of books at the end of a work of fiction is usually an attempt to shore up a flimsy text — as though all art aspired to the condition of a student essay.”

But Mr. Faulks also added a disclaimer. “Human Traces” was so long and complicated, he said, that he thought the reader needed the extra help. But he had second thoughts with the paperback edition published in Britain. “I took that whole section out because it seemed long and pompous and unwieldy,” he said. “There was no need to bother people with it in the paperback.”

Complaints from readers soon followed, though, and when the paperback comes out in the United States, Mr. Faulks plans to suggest that the bibliography goes back in.

“In general it’s never a bad idea for a writer to explain the sources and methodology behind a novel,” said Tim Duggan, an executive editor at HarperCollins. “I think people realize now that even in fiction, credit has to be given where credit is due.” Which is sure to displease some literary traditionalists. “I like the idea that the story itself is autonomous and self-sufficient,” said Mr. Wood of The New Republic. “But I’m terribly old fashioned. I wish they would reinstate ‘The End.’ ”

GRE "Perspective on an Issue" and "Argument Analysis" Tasks

Here are some of my quick thoughts about the GRE writing section and some I've culled from the Internet. Have a look.

Read the question carefully. Determine what it is arguing, and what criteria it is using to make that argument.

Quickly jot down some brief thoughts or words related to the issue to get you thinking.

Determine whether you have more to say in support of the argument or against the argument.

If you don’t think you can take a stand on one side or another, you should be ready to support part of the argument and disagree with another part, or indicate that you partially agree, and be ready to say why.

Tips for "The Argument Analysis Task"

Your task is

to present a compelling case for your own position on

the issue. Be sure to read the claim carefully and

think about it from several points of view, considering

the complexity of ideas associated with those

perspectives. Then, make notes about the position

you want to develop and list the main reasons and

examples that you could use to support that position.

The Issue task allows considerable latitude in the

way you respond to the claim. Although it is important

that you address the central issue, you are free to

take any approach you wish. For example, you might

• agree absolutely with the claim, disagree completely,

or agree with some parts and not others

• question the assumptions the statement seems to

be making

• qualify any of its terms, especially if the way you

define or apply a term is important to developing

your perspective on the issue

• point out why the claim is valid in some situations

but not in others

• evaluate points of view that contrast with your

own perspective

• develop your position with reasons that are

supported by several relevant examples or by a

single extended example

The GRE readers scoring your response are not

looking for a “right” answer—in fact, there is no

correct position to take. Instead, the readers are

evaluating the skill with which you articulate and

develop an argument to support your position on the

issue.

• carefully read the claim made in the topic and

make sure you understand the issue involved; if

it seems unclear, discuss it with a friend or

teacher

• think about the issue in relation to your own

ideas and experiences, to events you have read

about or observed, and to people you have

known; this is the knowledge base from which

you will develop compelling reasons and examples

in your argument that reinforce, negate,

or qualify the claim in some way

• decide what position on the issue you want to

take and defend—remember you are free to

agree or disagree completely or to agree with

some parts or some applications but not others

• decide what compelling evidence (reasons and

examples) you can use to support your position

Remember that this is a task in critical thinking and

persuasive writing. Therefore, you might find it

helpful to explore the complexity of a claim in one of

the topics by asking yourself the following questions:

• What, precisely, is the central issue?

• Do I agree with all or with any part of the claim?

Why or why not?

• Does the claim make certain assumptions? If so,

are they reasonable?

• Is the claim valid only under certain conditions?

If so, what are they?

• Do I need to explain how I interpret certain

terms or concepts used in the claim?

• If I take a certain position on the issue, what

reasons support my position?

• What examples—either real or hypothetical—

could I use to illustrate those reasons and

advance my point of view? Which examples are

most compelling?

Once you have decided on a position to defend,

consider the perspective of others who might not

agree with your position. Ask yourself:

• What reasons might someone use to refute or

undermine my position?

• How should I acknowledge or defend against

those views in my essay?

To plan your response, you might want to summarize

your position and make brief notes about how you

will support the position you’re going to take.

The Argument-Analysis Writing Task

The Argument-Analysis writing task is designed to test your critical-reasoning skills as well as your writing skills. Your task is to critique the stated argument in terms of its cogency (logical soundness) and in terms of the strength of the evidence offered in support of the argument.

Your Argument-Analysis question will consist of two elements:

the directive: a brief instruction for responding to the argument (the directive is always the same)

the argument: a paragraph-length passage, which presents an argument (introduced as a quotation from some fictitious source)

Here's a simulated Argument-Analysis question. This question is similar to the ones on the actual GRE. Keep in mind, however, that it is not one of the official questions, so you won't see this one on the actual exam. (I'm not permitted to reproduce the actual test questions at this Website.)
.
Simulated Argument-Analysis Question

Discuss how well reasoned you find the argument below.

The following appeared in a memo from the manager of UpperCuts hair salon:

"According to a nationwide demographic study, more and more people today are moving from suburbs to downtown areas. In order to boost sagging profits at UpperCuts, we should take advantage of this trend by relocating the salon from its current location in Apton’s suburban mall to downtown Apton, while retaining the salon’s decidedly upscale ambiance. Besides, Hair-Dooz, our chief competitor at the mall, has just relocated downtown and is thriving at its new location, and the most prosperous hair salon in nearby Brainard is located in that city’s downtown area. By emulating the locations of these two successful salons, UpperCuts is certain to attract more customers."

.
Now here's a sample response to this question. As you read the response, keep in mind:

• Each one of the "body" paragraphs isolates and discusses a distinct flaw in the argument. A typical GRE argument will contain 3-4 flaws. (This simulated Argument contains 4 major flaws).
• This response is relatively simple in style and language and brief enough (410 words) to compose and type in 30 minutes.
• This response meets all the ETS criteria for a score of 6 (the highest possible score).

Sample Response (410 Words)

The manager of UpperCuts (UC) argues here that UC would improve its profitability by relocating from a suburban mall to downtown Apton. To support this argument, the manager relies in part on a certain study about demographic trends, and in part on the fact that two other similar businesses are located in downtown areas. However, the manager's reasoning rests on a series of unproven assumptions, which together undermine the argument.

One such assumption is that Apton reflects the cited demographic trend. The mere fact that one hair salon has moved downtown hardly suffices to show that the national trend applies to Apton specifically. For all we know, in Apton there is no such trend, or perhaps the trend is in the opposite direction. Thus I would need to know whether more people are in fact moving to downtown Apton before I could either accept or reject the manager’s proposal.

Even assuming that downtown Apton is attracting more residents, relocating downtown might not result in more customers for UC, especially if downtown residents are not interested in UC’s upscale style and prices. Besides, Hair-Dooz might draw potential customers away from UC, just as it might have at the mall. Before I can accept that UC would attract more customers downtown, the manager would need to supply clear proof of a sufficient demand downtown for UC’s service.

Even if there would be a high demand for UC’s service in downtown Apton, an increase in the number of patrons would not necessarily improve UC’s profitability. UC’s expenses might be higher downtown, in which case it might be no more, or perhaps even less, profitable downtown than at the mall. Therefore, before I could agree with the proposal, I would need to examine a comparative cost-benefit analysis for the two locations.

As for the Brainard salon, its success might be due to particular factors that don’t apply to UC. For example, perhaps the Brainard salon thrives only because it is long-established in downtown Brainard. Accordingly, in order to determine whether the success of the Brainard salon portends success for UC in downtown Apton, I would need to know why the former salon is successful in the first place.

In sum, the argument relies on what might amount to two poor analogies -- between UC and two other salons -- as well as a sweeping generalization about demographic trends, which may or may not apply to Apton. As a result, without the additional information indicated above, I find the argument unconvincing at best.

The Issue-Perspective Writing Task

The Issue-Perspective section is designed to test your ability to communicate your opinion on an issue effectively and persuasively. Your task is to analyze the issue presented, considering various perspectives, and to develop your own position on the issue. There is no "correct" answer.

Your Issue-Perspective question will consist of two elements:

the directive: a brief instruction for responding to the statement (the directive is always the same)

the topic: a one- or two-sentence statement of opinion about a particular issue of general intellectual interest

Here's a simulated Issue-Perspective question. This question is similar to the ones on the actual GRE. Keep in mind, however, that it is not one of the official questions, so you won't see this one on the actual exam. (I'm not permitted to reproduce the actual test questions at this Website.)
.
Simulated Issue-Perspective Question

Present your perspective on the issue below, using relevant reasons and/or examples to support your views.

"Look at any person today who has achieved great success in his or her career or profession, and you'll see either someone without a significant personal life or someone with significant personal failings."

.
Now here's a sample response to this question. As you read the response, keep in mind:

• None of the points asserted in this response are irrefutable, because the issue is far from "black-and-white." It's all a matter of opinion.
• 
  
• The author of the response partially agrees, but ultimately disagrees with the statement’s wording, which refers to “any person.” Such a statement is difficult to defend, and you should remember that even if you agree with the idea in general, you must respond to the specific statement.
• 
  
• This response is relatively simple in style and language and brief enough (463 words) to compose and type in 45 minutes.
• 
  
• This response meets all the ETS criteria for a score of 6 (the highest possible score).

Sample Response (463 Words)

I agree with the statement insofar as great professional success often comes at the expense of one's personal life, and can even be inextricably related to one's personal failings. However, the statement is problematic in that it unfairly suggests that personal and professional success are mutually exclusive in every case.

Undeniably, today's professionals must work long hours to keep their heads above water, let alone to get ahead in life financially. This is especially true in Japan, where cost of living, coupled with corporate culture, compel professional males to all but abandon their families and literally to work themselves to death. While the situation here in the states may not be as critical, the two-income family is now the norm, not by choice but by necessity.

However, our society's professionals are taking steps to remedy the problem. First, they are inventing ways--such as job sharing and telecommuting--to ensure that personal life is not sacrificed for career. Second, they are setting priorities and living those hours outside the workplace to their fullest. In fact, professional success usually requires the same time-management skills that are useful to find time for family, hobbies, and recreation. Third, more professionals are changing careers to ones which allow for some degree of personal fulfillment and self-actualization. Besides, many professionals truly love their work and would do it without compensation, as a hobby. For them, professional and personal fulfillment are one and the same.

Admittedly, personal failings often accompany professional achievement. In fact, the two are often symbiotically related. The former test the would-be achiever's mettle; they pose challenges--necessary resistance that drives one to professional achievement despite personal shortcomings. In the arts, a personal failing may be a necessary ingredient or integral part of the process of achieving. Artists and musicians often produce their most creative works during periods of depression, addiction, or other distress. In business, insensitivity to people can breed grand achievements, as with the questionable labor practices of the great philanthropist Andrew Carnegie.

However, for every individual whose professional success is bound up in his or her personal failings, there is another individual who has achieved success in both realms. One need only look at the recent American presidents--Carter, Reagan, and Bush--to see that it is possible to lead a balanced life which includes time for family, hobbies, and recreation, while immersed in a busy and successful career.

In sum, I agree that as a general rule people find it difficult to achieve great success both personally and professionally, and in fact history informs us that personal failings are often part-and-parcel of great achievements. However, despite the growing demands of career on today's professionals, a fulfilling personal life remains possible--by working smarter, by setting priorities, and by making suitable career choices.

Using quotes…

How much should I quote?

o The focus of your essay should be on your understanding of the topic. If you include too much quotation in your essay, you will crowd out your own ideas. Consider quoting a passage from one of your sources if any of the following conditions holds:

The language of the passage is particularly elegant or powerful or memorable.

You wish to confirm the credibility of your argument by enlisting the support of an authority on your topic.

The passage is worthy of further analysis.

You wish to argue with someone else's position in considerable detail.

oCondition 3 is especially useful in essays for literature courses.

oIf an argument or a factual account from one of your sources is particularly relevant to your paper but does not deserve to be quoted verbatim, consider

paraphrasing the passage if you wish to convey the points in the passage at roughly the same level of detail as in the original

summarizing the relevant passage if you wish to sketch only the most essential points in the passage

o
Introducing Quotations

o Quotations come from somewhere, and your reader will want to know where. Don't just parachute quotations into your essay without providing at least some indication of who your source is. Letting your reader know exactly which authorities you rely on is an advantage: it shows that you have done your research and that you are well acquainted with the literature on your topic.

o

oIn the following passage, the parenthetical reference to the author does not adequately identify the source:

n

The ancient Greeks never saw a need to justify wars that were waged outside the walls of the city state. "Hence we must turn to Roman antiquity to find the first justification of war, together with the first notion that there are just and unjust wars" (Arendt 12). Yet the Roman conception of a just war differs sharply from more modern conceptions.

oWhen you are making decisions about how to integrate quotations into your essay, you might imagine that you are reading the essay out loud to an audience. Without some sort of introduction, your audience would not even know that the statement about Roman antiquity was a quotation, let alone where the quotation came from.

How do I introduce a short quotation?

The following offers just one way of introducing the previous quotation:

The ancient Greeks never saw a need to justify wars that were waged outside the walls of the city state. As Hannah Arendt points out in On Revolution, "we must turn to Roman antiquity to find the first justification of war, together with the first notion that there are just and unjust wars" (12). Yet the Roman conception of a just war differs sharply from more modern conceptions.

oSince the quotation is relatively short, the brief introduction works.

oYou could, however, strengthen your analysis by demonstrating the significance of the passage within your own argument. Introducing your quotation with a full sentence would help you assert greater control over the material:

The ancient Greeks never saw a need to justify wars that were waged outside the walls of the city state. In On Revolution, Hannah Arendt points to the role the Romans played in laying the foundation for later thinking about the ethics of waging war: "we must turn to Roman antiquity to find the first justification of war, together with the first notion that there are just and unjust wars" (12). Yet the Roman conception of a just war differs sharply from more modern conceptions.

oIn these two examples, observe the forms of punctuation used to introduce the quotations. When you introduce a quotation with a full sentence, you should always place a colon at the end of the introductory sentence. When you introduce a quotation with an incomplete sentence, you usually place a comma after the introductory phrase. However, you can use a colon rather than a comma:

Arendt writes: "we must turn to Roman antiquity to find the first justification of war . . ."

oIf you are blending the quotation into your own sentence using the conjunction that, do not use any punctuation at all:

Arendt writes that "we must turn to Roman antiquity to find the first justification of war . . ."

oIf you are not sure whether to punctuate your introduction to a quotation, mentally remove the quotation marks, and ask yourself whether any punctuation is still required.

oFinally, note that you can deviate from the common pattern of introduction followed by quotation. Weaving the phrases of others into your own prose offers a stylistically compelling way of maintaining control over your source material. The following condenses twelve lines from Arendt's essay to fewer than three:

What Arendt refers to as the "well-known realities of power politics" began to lose their moral legitimacy when the First World War unleashed "the horribly destructive" forces of warfare "under conditions of modern technology" (13).

Handling Long Quotations

If your quotation is lengthy, you should almost always introduce it with a full sentence that helps capture how it fits into your argument. If your quotation is longer than four lines, do not place it in quotation marks. Instead, set it off as a block quotation:

David becomes identified and defined by James Steerforth, a young man with whom David is acquainted from his days at Salem House. Before meeting Steerforth, David accepts Steerforth’s name as an authoritative power:

There was an old door in this playground, on which the boys had a custom of carving their names. . . . In my dread of the end of the vacation and their coming back, I could not read a boy’s name, without inquiring in what tone and with what emphasis he would read, “Take care of him. He bites.” There was one boy—a certain J. Steerforth—who cut his name very deep and very often, who I conceived, would read it in a rather strong voice, and afterwards pull my hair. (Dickens 68)

For Steerforth, naming becomes an act of possession, as well as exploitation. Steerforth names David for his fresh look and innocence, but also uses the name Daisy to exploit David's romantic tendencies (Dyson 122).

(thanks to Purdue OWL)

Works Cited!

Remember: the end of your paper should have a comprehensive section titled "Works Cited." Not "Sources," or "Articles," or "Web Sites" but "Works Cited." And the format for the works themselves should be as follows:

Works Cited: Some Examples

o Book

Byatt, A. S. Babel Tower. New York: Random House, 1996.

o Article in a Magazine

Klein, Joe. “Dizzy Days.” The New Yorker 5 Oct. 1998: 40-45.

o Web page

Poland, Dave. “The Hot Button.” Roughcut. 26 Oct. 1998. .

o A newspaper article

Tommasini, Anthony. “Master Teachers Whose Artistry Glows in Private.” New York Times 27 Oct. 1998: B2.

o A source with no known author

“Cigarette Sales Fall 30% as California Tax Rises.” New York Times 14 Sept. 1999: A17.

Handling Citations in Your Text

o Author’s last name and page number(s) of quote must appear in the text

Romantic poetry is characterized by the “spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings” (Wordsworth 263).

Wordsworth stated that Romantic poetry was marked by a “spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings” (263).

Handling Parenthetical Citations

o If the source has no known author, then use an abbreviated version of the title:

Full Title: “California Cigarette Tax Deters Smokers”

Citation: (“California” A14)

o If the source is only one page in length or is a web page with no apparent pagination:

Source: Dave Poland’s “Hot Button” web column

Citation: (Poland)

Organizing an Essay

Getting started

To get thinking about your thesis—basically, your point—and the reasons and evidence you will use to support it, consider the following:

Walking away: do something else for a while and come back to it later.

Brainstorming: talk with friends about your topic and take notes as you go. I find this is a fantastic way to get ideas flowing.

Sleeping on it: Go to bed with a few ideas dancing around your head and a pad of paper next to your bed. This has helped me write a few really good essays actually.

Freewriting: Start writing and don’t take your pen off the page for about ten minutes. See what
comes out. Chances are you’ll have some great ideas left in the wreckage.

Some basic guidelines

Start thinking about organization immediately. The best time to think about how to organize your paper is during the pre-writing stage, not the writing or revising stage. A well-thought-out plan can save you from having to do a lot of reorganizing when the first draft is completed. Moreover, it allows you to pay more attention to sentence-level issues when you sit down to write your paper.

When you begin planning, ask the following questions: What type of essay am I going to be writing? Does it belong to a specific genre? In university, you may be asked to write, say, a book review, a lab report, a document study, or a compare-and-contrast essay. Knowing the patterns of reasoning associated with a genre can help you to structure your essay.

For example, book reviews typically begin with a summary of the book you're reviewing. They then often move on to a critical discussion of the book's strengths and weaknesses. They may conclude with an overall assessment of the value of the book. These typical features of a book review lead you to consider dividing your outline into three parts: (1) summary; (2) discussion of strengths and weaknesses; (3) overall evaluation. The second and most substantial part will likely break down into two sub-parts. It is up to you to decide the order of the two subparts-whether to analyze strengths or weaknesses first. And of course it will be up to you to come up with actual strengths and weaknesses.

Be aware that genres are not fixed. Read the assignment question carefully for guidance.

Avoiding a common pitfall

Though there are no easy formulas for generating an outline, you can avoid one of the most common pitfalls in student papers by remembering this simple principle: the structure of an essay should not be determined by the structure of its source material. For example, an essay on an historical period should not necessarily follow the chronology of events from that period. Similarly, a well-constructed essay about a literary work does not usually progress in parallel with the plot. Your obligation is to advance your argument, not to reproduce the plot.

When should I begin putting together a plan?

The earlier you begin planning, the better. It is usually a mistake to do all of your research and note-taking before beginning to draw up an outline. Of course, you will have to do some reading and weighing of evidence before you start to plan. But as a potential argument begins to take shape in your mind, you may start to formalize your thoughts in the form of a tentative plan. You will be much more efficient in your reading and your research if you have some idea of where your argument is headed. You can then search for evidence for the points in your tentative plan while you are reading and researching. As you gather evidence, those points that still lack evidence should guide you in your research. Remember, though, that your plan may need to be modified as you critically evaluate your evidence.

Some techniques for integrating note-taking and planning

Though convenient, the common method of jotting down your notes consecutively on paper is far from ideal. The problem is that your points remain fixed on paper. Here are three alternatives that provide greater flexibility:

method 1: index cards

When you are researching, write down every idea, fact, quotation, or paraphrase on a separate index card. Small (5" by 3") cards are easiest to work with. When you've collected all your cards, reshuffle them into the best possible order, and you have an outline, though you will undoubtedly want to reduce this outline to the essential points should you transcribe it to paper.

A useful alternative involves using both white and colored cards. When you come up with a point that you think may be one of the main points in your outline, write it at the top of a colored card. Put each supporting note on a separate white card, using as much of the card as necessary. When you feel ready, arrange the colored cards into a workable plan. Some of the points may not fit in. If so, either modify the plan or leave these points out. You may need to fill gaps by creating new cards. You can shuffle your supporting material into the plan by placing each of the white cards behind the point it helps support.

method 2: the circle method

This method is designed to get your ideas onto a single page, where you can see them all at once. When you have an idea, write it down on paper and draw a circle around it. When you have an idea which supports another idea, do the same, but connect the two circles with a line. Supporting source material can be represented concisely by a page reference inside a circle. The advantage of the circle method is that you can see at a glance how things tie together; the disadvantage is that there is a limit to how much material you can cram onto a page.

Here is part of a circle diagram:

What does an essay outline look like?

Most essays outlines will never be handed in. They are meant to serve you and no one else. Nevertheless, when you produce your outline, you should follow certain basic principles. Here is an example of an outline for an essay on Hamlet:

thesis: Despite Hamlet's highly developed moral nature, he becomes morally compromised while delaying his revenge.
I.	Introduction: Hamlet's father asks Hamlet not only to seek vengeance but also to keep his mind untainted.
II.	Hamlet has a highly developed moral nature.
	A.	Hamlet is idealistic.
	B.	Hamlet is aware of his own faults, whereas others are self-satisfied.
	C.	Hamlet does not want to take revenge without grounds for acting.
III.	Hamlet becomes morally compromised while delaying.
	A.	The turning point in Hamlet's moral decline is his killing of Polonius.
	B.	Hamlet's moral decline continues when he sends Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to their death.
	C.	Hamlet already began his moral decline before the turning point in the play, the killing of Polonius.
		1.	Hamlet treats women badly.
		2.	Hamlet criticizes others in the play for acting falsely to get ahead, but in adopting the disguise of madness he, too, is presenting a false face to the world.
IV.	Though Hamlet becomes more compromised the longer he delays, killing the king would have been a morally questionable act.
V.	Conclusion: The play Hamlet questions the adequacy of a system of ethics based on honour and revenge.

This is an example of a sentence outline. Another kind of outline is the topic outline. It consists of fragments rather than full sentences. Topic outlines are more open-ended than sentence outlines: they leave much of the working out of the argument for the writing stage.

What is a reverse outline?

When you have completed your first draft, and you think your paper can be better organized, consider using a reverse outline. Reverse outlines are simple to create. Just read through your essay, and every time you make a new point, summarize it in the margin. If the essay is reasonably well-organized, you should have one point in the margin for each paragraph, and your points read out in order should form a coherent argument. You might, however, discover that some of your points are repeated at various places in your essay. Other points may be out of place, and still other key points may not appear at all. Think of all these points as the ingredients of an improved outline which you now must create. Use this new outline to cut and paste the sentences into a revised version of your essay, consolidating points that appear in several parts of your essay while eliminating repetition and creating smooth transitions where necessary.

You can improve even the most carefully planned essay by creating a reverse outline after completing your first draft. The process of revision should be as much about organization as it is about style.

Adapted from Jerry Plotnick, Director, University College Writing Workshop, University of Toronto, 2005.

Signal Your Quotations

ooFamiliarize yourself with the various verbs commonly used to introduce quotations. Here is a partial list:

n

n

Argues writes points out concludes comments notes maintains suggests insists observes counters implies states claims demonstrates says explains reveals

nEach verb has its own nuance. Make sure that the nuance matches your specific aims in introducing the quotation.

o
There are other ways to begin quotations. Here are three common phrasings:

n

In the words of X, . . .

nAccording to X, . . .

nIn X's view, . . .

oVary the way you introduce quotations to avoid sounding monotonous.

Vary the way you indicate the speaker and the source.

He said, “This is a very special day for me, not least because Friday is my favorite day of the week.”

Pasternack said, according to Reuters’ Brandon Blackburn-Dwyer, “This is a very special day for me, not least because Friday is my favorite day of the week.” (Blackburn-Dwyer)

Or

“This is a very special day for me,” he told Reuters, “not least because Friday is my favorite day of the week.” (Blackburn-Dwyer)

All I'm saying is, be careful (and be write of course!)

Chinese teacher kills 11-year-old girl in class

Sep 25, 2006 — BEIJING (Reuters) - A Chinese history teacher beat an 11-year-old pupil senseless and threw her body from a fourth-floor classroom window, killing her in a so-far unexplained frenzy, a local newspaper said on Monday.

Li Hengyi, 28, attacked Zhang Yaoyi during class on Wednesday at a middle school in Yongzhou city in the central province of Hunan, the Beijing News said.

"He knocked her head against the desks back and forth and stomped on her after she fell," the newspaper said. "He then produced a steel bar to beat her."

Li later picked up the motionless Zhang, said he was going to take her to the school clinic, but opened the window and threw her out instead, the newspaper added, quoting an unnamed witness.

Li, whose motive was unknown, had been detained, the newspaper said.

There have been a series of attacks on schools and schoolchildren around China in recent years, some by people who have lost their jobs or felt left out of the country's economic boom.

In May, a man set fire to a kindergarten classroom, killing three children and injuring 14 people.

Overview of the Academic Essay

In the spirit of an academic research essay, I'd like to quote Kathy Duffin, of Harvard's Writing Center, to introduce, well, the academic research essay.

To be more academic:

According to Kathy Duffin, of Harvard's Writing Center, academic writers must be attentive to rigor of thought, careful observation, motive, thesis and clarity, tensions in an argument, and tactics of organization.

A clear sense of argument is essential to all forms of academic writing, for writing is thought made visible. Insights and ideas that occur to us when we encounter the raw material of the world—natural phenomena like the behavior of genes, or cultural phenomena, like texts, photographs and artifacts—must be ordered in some way so others can receive them and respond in turn. This give and take is at the heart of the scholarly enterprise, and makes possible that vast conversation known as civilization. Like all human ventures, the conventions of the academic essay are both logical and playful. They may vary in expression from discipline to discipline, but any good essay should show us a mind developing a thesis, supporting that thesis with evidence, deftly anticipating objections or counter-arguments, and maintaining the momentum of discovery.

Motive and Idea

An essay has to have a purpose or motive; the mere existence of an assignment or deadline is not sufficient. When you write an essay or research paper, you are never simply transferring information from one place to another, or showing that you have mastered a certain amount of material. That would be incredibly boring—and besides, it would be adding to the glut of pointless utterance. Instead, you should be trying to make the best possible case for an original idea you have arrived at after a period of research. Depending upon the field, your research may involve reading and rereading a text, performing an experiment, or carefully observing an object or behavior.

By immersing yourself in the material, you begin to discover patterns and generate insights, guided by a series of unfolding questions. From a number of possibilities, one idea emerges as the most promising. You try to make sure it is original and of some importance; there is no point arguing for something already known, trivial, or widely accepted.

Thesis and Development

The essay's thesis is the main point you are trying to make, using the best evidence you can marshall. Your thesis will evolve during the course of writing drafts, but everything that happens in your essay is directed toward establishing its validity. A given assignment may not tell you that you need to come up with a thesis and defend it, but these are the unspoken requirements of any scholarly paper.

Deciding upon a thesis can generate considerable anxiety. Students may think, "How can I have a new idea about a subject scholars have spent their whole lives exploring? I just read a few books in the last few days, and now I'm supposed to be an expert?" But you can be original on different scales. We can't possibly know everything that has been, or is being, thought or written by everyone in the world—even given the vastness and speed of the Internet. What is required is a rigorous, good faith effort to establish originality, given the demands of the assignment and the discipline. It is a good exercise throughout the writing process to stop periodically and reformulate your thesis as succinctly as possible so someone in another field could understand its meaning as well as its importance. A thesis can be relatively complex, but you should be able to distill its essence. This does not mean you have to give the game away right from the start. Guided by a clear understanding of the point you wish to argue, you can spark your reader's curiosity by first asking questions—the very questions that may have guided you in your research—and carefully building a case for the validity of your idea. Or you can start with a provocative observation, inviting your audience to follow your own path of discovery.

The Tension of Argument

Argument implies tension but not combative fireworks. This tension comes from the fundamental asymmetry between the one who wishes to persuade and those who must be persuaded. The common ground they share is reason. Your objective is to make a case so that any reasonable person would be convinced of the reasonableness of your thesis. The first task, even before you start to write, is gathering and ordering evidence, classifying it by kind and strength. You might decide to move from the smallest piece of evidence to the most impressive. Or you might start with the most convincing, then mention other supporting details afterward. You could hold back a surprising piece of evidence until the very end.

In any case, it is important to review evidence that could be used against your idea and generate responses to anticipated objections. This is the crucial concept of counter-argument. If nothing can be said against an idea, it is probably obvious or vacuous. (And if too much can be said against it, it's time for another thesis.) By not indicating an awareness of possible objections, you might seem to be hiding something, and your argument will be weaker as a consequence. You should also become familiar with the various fallacies that can undermine an argument—the "straw man" fallacy, fallacies of causation and of analogy, etc.—and strive to avoid them.

The Structure of Argument

The heart of the academic essay is persuasion, and the structure of your argument plays a vital role in this. To persuade, you must set the stage, provide a context, and decide how to reveal your evidence. Of course, if you are addressing a community of specialists, some aspects of a shared context can be taken for granted. But clarity is always a virtue. The essay's objective should be described swiftly, by posing a question that will lead to your thesis, or making a thesis statement. There is considerable flexibility about when and where this happens, but within the first page or two, we should know where we are going, even if some welcome suspense is preserved. In the body of the paper, merely listing evidence without any discernible logic of presentation is a common mistake. What might suffice in conversation is too informal for an essay. If the point being made is lost in a welter of specifics, the argument falters.

The most common argumentative structure in English prose is deductive: starting off with a generalization or assertion, and then providing support for it. This pattern can be used to order a paragraph as well as an entire essay. Another possible structure is inductive: facts, instances or observations can be reviewed, and the conclusion to be drawn from them follows. There is no blueprint for a successful essay; the best ones show us a focused mind making sense of some manageable aspect of the world, a mind where insightfulness, reason, and clarity are joined.